The English Anarchy, which lasted from 1135 to 1153, was a turbulent period of civil war, political instability, and social upheaval in medieval England. It began with the death of King Henry I and ended with the Treaty of Wallingford, which paved the way for the accession of Henry II. This period is often characterised by chronic disorder, shifting allegiances, and the breakdown of central authority, earning the name “The Anarchy.”
When King Henry I died in December 1135, he left no surviving legitimate male heir. His only legitimate son, William Adelin, had drowned in the White Ship disaster of 1120. Henry had designated his daughter, the Empress Matilda, as his heir and had made his barons swear oaths of loyalty to her. However, the idea of a female monarch was unprecedented in England, and many barons were reluctant to support her claim. Instead, Henry’s nephew, Stephen of Blois, seized the throne with remarkable speed and decisiveness. With the backing of his brother, Henry of Blois, Bishop of Winchester, and the initial support of many nobles, Stephen was crowned king on the 22nd of December, 1135.
Stephen’s early reign was fraught with challenges. Although he initially secured the crown, his rule was hampered by weak authority and the growing power of the barons. Castles sprang up across the country, many of them built illegally, and local lords acted with increasing autonomy. This erosion of royal control was one of the hallmarks of the Anarchy. Meanwhile, Empress Matilda, supported by her half-brother Robert of Gloucester and her second husband, Geoffrey of Anjou, began asserting her claim from the continent.
The conflict escalated into open war in the late 1130s. Robert of Gloucester invaded England in 1139, marking the true beginning of the civil war. Matilda’s arrival further intensified the struggle. The war saw major battles and sieges, but it was often marked by stalemates and the exhaustion of resources rather than decisive victories. One of the most significant engagements was the Battle of Lincoln in 1141, where Stephen was captured by Matilda’s forces. This appeared to give Matilda the upper hand, and she was declared “Lady of the English,” effectively queen in all but coronation.
However, Matilda’s fortunes quickly reversed. Her perceived arrogance and heavy-handed behaviour alienated key supporters, including the citizens of London, who drove her out of the city before she could secure her coronation. Later in 1141, Robert of Gloucester was captured, forcing an exchange of prisoners that restored Stephen to freedom and reignited the stalemate. The civil war dragged on, with neither side able to secure a lasting advantage.
The Anarchy was felt most keenly by the ordinary population. Chroniclers of the period described lawlessness and suffering, with robber barons plundering the countryside and peasants bearing the brunt of raids and sieges. Castles became centres of local tyranny, and trade and agriculture faltered under the strain of ongoing conflict. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle famously lamented that “Christ and His saints slept” during this period, capturing the sense of despair and disorder that pervaded the kingdom.
By the early 1150s, the conflict had reached a weary equilibrium. Stephen retained the crown, but his ability to control the realm remained limited. Empress Matilda had largely withdrawn from the direct struggle, leaving the cause to her son, Henry of Anjou. Henry launched campaigns in England that demonstrated his growing power but avoided protracted, costly engagements that could weaken his position.
The resolution came in 1153 with the Treaty of Wallingford (also known as the Treaty of Winchester). By this agreement, Stephen recognised Henry as his adopted son and heir, effectively disinheriting his own surviving son, William. In return, Henry agreed to respect Stephen’s kingship for the remainder of his life. When Stephen died in 1154, Henry ascended the throne as Henry II, inaugurating the Plantagenet dynasty and restoring strong royal authority after nearly two decades of turmoil.
The consequences of the Anarchy were profound. It exposed the vulnerabilities of the English monarchy in the absence of clear succession, highlighted the dangers of overmighty barons, and left a legacy of distrust in the idea of female rulership that would echo for centuries. However, it also set the stage for the reforms and consolidation of power under Henry II, whose reign would usher in a new era of stability and legal development.